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right-click (Windows) or Control-click (Macintosh) the keyframe and choose Clear Keyframe from the context menu. The cleared keyframe and all frames up to the subsequent keyframe are replaced with the contents of the frame preceding the cleared keyframe.

How does the notion of sensitive dependence on initial conditions relate to human behavior Most generally, it suggests that a person s behavior will be hard to predict over a long period except in general terms. For example, although you might be con dent that Mel usually eats lunch, you will not be able to predict as well what time, where, or what he will eat on the second Friday of next month. This does not mean Mel s behavior is truly random or unlawful (cf. Epstein, 1979). It just means that small differences between the in uences you think are affecting him and the in uences that actually exist will ruin the predictability of moment-to-moment behavior. This principle also holds for prediction of your own behavior. People apparently do not plan very far into the future most of the time (Anderson, 1990, pp. 203 205), even experts (Gobet & Simon, 1996). People seem to have goals in which the general form is sketched out but only a few steps toward it have been planned. Even attempts at relatively thorough planning appear to be recursive and opportunistic, changing sometimes drastically when new information becomes known (Hayes-Roth & Hayes-Roth, 1979). The notion of sensitive dependence on initial conditions ts these tendencies. It is pointless (and maybe even counterproductive) to plan too far ahead too fully (cf. Kirschenbaum, 1985), because chaotic forces in play (forces that are hard to predict because of nonlinearities and sensitive dependence) can render much of the planning irrelevant. Thus, it makes sense to plan in general terms, chart a few steps, get there, reassess, and plan the next bits. This seems a perfect illustration of how people implicitly take chaos into account in their own lives. Phase Space, Attractors, and Repellers Another set of concepts important to dynamic-systems thinking are variations on the terms phase space and attractor (Brown, 1995; Vallacher & Nowak, 1997). A phase diagram is a depiction of the behavior of a system over time. Its states are plotted along two (sometimes three) axes, with time displayed as the progression of the line of the plot, rather than on an axis of its own. A phase space is the array of states that the system occupies across a period of time. As the system changes states from one moment to the next, it traces a trajectory within its phase space a path of the successive states it occupies across that period. Phase spaces often contain regions called attractors. Attractors are areas that the system approaches, occupies, or tends toward more frequently than other areas. Attractors exert a metaphorical gravitational pull on the system, bringing

Right-click the My Computer icon on your desktop. Select Properties. A window opens. Click the Device Manager tab. Click the plus sign (+) located next to the CDROM category (see Figure 1-15). You should see a CD icon, next to which is the name of your CD or DVD drive as well as its model number. If not, do the following: a. Double-click the CD icon. b. A window opens. On the General tab, look for the name and model of you drive. c. If you still can t nd it, click the Details tab and look there.

behavior, without the ironic twists and the revelations of subtle faux pas for which cognitive explanations have become renown, social learning theory generates little excitement. The direct focus on behavior and reinforcement history seems almost unpsychological in its lack of nuance. Even with the added emphasis on self-reward, cognitive representation, self-regulation, and reciprocal determinism (Bandura, 1977, 1991), social learning theory seems bland. Still, were one forced to choose a single theory to explain why people do and do not act prosocially, social learning theory should almost certainly be the choice. As Einstein has emphasized, the goal is to account for the most facts with the fewest principles (Dollard & Miller, 1950, p. 6). Social learning theory has probably come closer to this goal than has any other theory in the history of social psychology. Tension Reduction Tension reduction has long been a popular explanation of why people help others in need, especially others in obvious pain or distress. The general idea is that people nd it upsetting to see another person suffer and that preferring not to be upset, they relieve the other s suffering. Perhaps the best way to describe the relationship between tension reduction, which is a form of motivation, and social learning is to say that they are related by marriage. Social learning can exist without tension reduction, as in the pure operant theories descendant from Watson and Skinner. Tension reduction can exist without social learning, as in reactions to pain, extreme temperatures, hunger, thirst, and other physiological needs. Yet social learning and tension reduction lived together for many years in relative harmony, housed within Hull s (1943) general learning theory and its descendants, including Dollard and Miller s (1950) version of social learning theory. In response to the current cognitive zeitgeist, social learning theory has of late been less attached to tension reduction, showing more interest in cognitive processes (Bandura, 1977, 1991). Whether this philandering is grounds for divorce is hard to say. In any case, tension reduction has also been seen stepping out without operant processes by its side, most notably in dissonance theory at least as originally conceived by Festinger (1957). Why should the suffering of others upset someone Most straightforward is the answer proposed by J. A. Piliavin et al. (1981), among others. They suggested that witnessing another s distress evokes vicarious distress that has much the same character as the victim s distress, and the witness is motivated to escape his or her own distress. One way to escape is to help because helping terminates the stimulus causing the distress. Of course, running away may enable the witness to

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Instead, you would place a regular PHP variable into the Smarty variable stash where it can be accessed by Smarty tags:

Sub ShowChart() Dim UserRow As Long UserRow = ActiveCell.Row If UserRow < 2 Or IsEmpty(Cells(UserRow, 1)) Then MsgBox _ Move the cell cursor to a row that contains data. Exit Sub End If CreateChart UserRow UserForm1.Show End Sub

either baseline dopamine or reactivity to the blockading agent. Despite the lack of difference in dopaminergic activity or reactivity, they found that reaction time performance was markedly impaired in introverts but not in extraverts by the dopamine blockading agent. In another study, using a chemical that selectively blocks D2 receptors and inhibits dopamine neurons in the limbic and cortical regions of the brain, Rammsayer (1998) again found a detrimental effect on reaction (liftoff) time in introverts but not in extraverts. The agent that was used caused a marked decrease in alertness and cortical arousal, but this effect was equivalent in introverts and extraverts. Both this nding and the performance ndings would seem to contradict Eysenck s arousal explanation for the differences between introverts and extraverts. That theory would predict a more detrimental effect in extraverts because they supposedly start with a lower level of cortical arousal. But the results also raise the question, What is the source of the performance differences between introverts and extraverts if they do not differ in dopamine activity or reactivity The answer might lie in the interactions of dopaminergic and other neurotransmitters or hormones or, at another level, in the genetics of the dopaminergic receptors. Considerable interest has developed in a gene associated with the dopamine receptor 4 (DRD4). Allelic variations in this gene have been associated with novelty or sensation seeking, but not with extraversion (Ebstein, Nemarov, Klotz, Gritsenko, & Belmaker, 1997; Ebstein et al., 1996). Simple correlative studies have found no relationship between serotonin or norepinephrine and E or other personality variables measured by questionnaires given to adult subjects. A study using CSF from newborns in predicting temperamental traits found that infants born with low levels of the serotonin metabolite 5-HIAA showed low sociability at 9 months of age (Constantino & Murphy, 1996). Retest reliability for 5-HIAA in neurologically normal infants was very high (r = .94). A study of adults with depressive disorder treated with either a noradrenergic or a serotonergic reuptake inhibiter, which increase activity in those systems, showed that there were signi cant increases in measures of E and gregariousness (sociability) in those treated with these drugs (Bagby, Levitan, Kennedy, Levitt, & Joffe, 1999). The change in E was correlated with the change in depression severity, but the change in sociability was not. Although the result with sociability probably represents a change of state rather than the preillness trait, serotonin and norepinephrine might play some role in the trait as well. Studies of serotonin transporter genes have not shown any relationship to E, although they have to